Method, media, and system for product clustering

ABSTRACT

In one embodiment, a method includes generating a query based on a seed product offer that describes a product being offered for sale and executing the query, using a search engine that normalizes search terms in the query, on a plurality of product offers to determine candidate offers. The candidate offers are likely associated with the product. The method further includes determining one or more common attribute values across corresponding attributes of the candidate offers. The method additionally includes for each attribute value of each candidate offer, scoring the attribute value based on whether it matches one or more of the common attribute values, and updating a set of normalized attribute values for the product to include the attribute value based on whether the score is greater than a predetermined threshold.

TECHNICAL FIELD

This disclosure generally relates to product clustering, and specifically an algorithm for product clustering.

BACKGROUND

A social-networking system, which may include a social-networking website, may enable its users (such as persons or organizations) to interact with it and with each other through it. The social-networking system may, with input from a user, create and store in the social-networking system a user profile associated with the user. The user profile may include demographic information, communication-channel information, and information on personal interests of the user. The social-networking system may also, with input from a user, create and store a record of relationships of the user with other users of the social-networking system, as well as provide services (e.g., wall posts, photo-sharing, event organization, messaging, games, or advertisements) to facilitate social interaction between or among users.

The social-networking system may send over one or more networks content or messages related to its services to a mobile or other computing device of a user. A user may also install software applications on a mobile or other computing device of the user for accessing a user profile of the user and other data within the social-networking system. The social-networking system may generate a personalized set of content objects to display to a user, such as a newsfeed of aggregated stories of other users connected to the user.

Social-graph analysis views social relationships in terms of network theory consisting of nodes and edges. Nodes represent the individual actors within the networks, and edges represent the relationships between the actors. The resulting graph-based structures are often very complex. There can be many types of nodes and many types of edges for connecting nodes. In its simplest form, a social graph is a map of all of the relevant edges between all the nodes being studied.

A mobile computing device—such as a smartphone, tablet computer, or laptop computer—may include functionality for determining its location, direction, or orientation, such as a GPS receiver, compass, gyroscope, or accelerometer. Such a device may also include functionality for wireless communication, such as BLUETOOTH communication, near-field communication (NFC), or infrared (IR) communication or communication with a wireless local area networks (WLANs) or cellular-telephone network. Such a device may also include one or more cameras, scanners, touchscreens, microphones, or speakers. Mobile computing devices may also execute software applications, such as games, web browsers, or social-networking applications. With social-networking applications, users may connect, communicate, and share information with other users in their social networks.

SUMMARY OF PARTICULAR EMBODIMENTS

In certain embodiments, a seed product offer is received that describes a particular product being offered for sale. The seed product offer comprises attributes having corresponding attribute values that define aspects of the product being offered for sale. The seed product offer can be compiled by extracting a set of attribute values from a pool of product offers. In certain embodiments, a query is generated based on the attributes of the seed product offer. The query includes one or more attribute/value pairs. In certain embodiments, the query is executed through a search engine that normalizes query terms for execution on one or more databases to identify hard or soft matches based on seed product offer attribute values. Particular attribute values are determined that distinguish the product offers from other unrelated product offers. For example, the search engine searches product offers for products having key components of certain attribute values with respect to the seed product offer's attribute values. In certain embodiments, the query is executed on a plurality of product offers and a result set is compiled. The result set may be referred to as “candidate offers” as they show at least some propensity, based on the executed query (e.g., similarities to the seed product offer attributes), for association with the product being offered for sale. In certain embodiments, each attribute value of each candidate offer is scored against common attribute values of the candidate offers. A set of normalized attribute values is updated to include the highest scoring attribute values. The highest scoring attribute values can be determined based on whether the attribute value score exceeds a predetermined threshold.

In certain embodiments, the seed product offer is determined using a pool of product offers that are associated with a product offering. The seed product can, for example, be selected by an administrator as the product offer that provides the most “complete” set of attribute values. As another example, the seed product can be determined by a process that scans attribute values of each product offer to determine a most “complete” set of attribute values. The term “complete” set of attribute values may refer to a product offer that has attribute value entries for a highest number of attributes or for certain key attributes. For example, universal product code (“UPC”) attribute values are very rare since this information is typically not user-friendly or conducive to a traditional user purchasing a product. Accordingly, UPC's are traditionally not provided on product pages and thus are not usually recoverable by product information extraction processes. A “complete” set of attributes may include a UPC entry. Other factors and considerations can be applied when determining a complete set of attributes for purposes of identifying a seed product offer.

In certain embodiments, the query is executed on a plurality of product offers iteratively until a refined set of product offers is identified. For example, the attribute scoring and evaluation processes may work best on a limited or refined set of product offers. A first iteration of the query may return a large number of product offers. The query can be modified between iterations in order to refine the number of product offers returned as candidate offers. Query modifications include modifying a “strength” of a query match. For example, hard or soft matches may be acceptable. As another example, a “fuzziness” of the query can be adjusted to return a more permissive set of matching attribute values. In certain embodiments, additional attribute/attribute values are added to the query after each iteration. For example, the first iteration queries the set of product offers using three attribute values. However, the first iteration returns a large set of candidate product offers. A fourth attribute value can be added to the query in a second iteration to refine the number of candidate product offers returned, and often improve the result set of candidate product offerings.

In certain embodiments, a set of normalized attribute values that describe a particular product are defined or updated. For example, normalized attribute values are defined in a product catalog. The product catalog defines key product attributes for identifying each listed product. For example, such a catalog may be used by an organization to locate product offers that its customers or users are interested in. For example, a user may indicate an interest in a particular brand or type of product by “liking” a page in the social-networking system that is associated with the brand or product. The organization can use the product catalog to locate the same, similar, or related products and identify product offers that are associated with those products. The identified product offers can be presented to the user in a plurality of ways, such as in an advertisement. In certain embodiments, candidate product offers are scored against the normalized attribute values to determine whether candidate product offers are, in fact, associated with the identified product. Candidate product offers can be “clustered” into groups associated with each product identified in the catalog. Clustering product offers into groups associated with products may be referred to as “cluster mapping.” In certain embodiments, product offerings are scored and clustered based on whether their score is above a predetermined threshold. Product offers in the groups or clusters can be analyzed to identify offers that one or more users will likely be interested in, and the selected product offers can be presented to the user.

The embodiments disclosed above are only examples, and the scope of this disclosure is not limited to them. Particular embodiments may include all, some, or none of the components, elements, features, functions, operations, or steps of the embodiments disclosed above. Embodiments according to the invention are in particular disclosed in the attached claims directed to a method, a storage medium, a system and a computer program product, wherein any feature mentioned in one claim category, e.g. method, can be claimed in another claim category, e.g. system, as well. The dependencies or references back in the attached claims are chosen for formal reasons only. However any subject matter resulting from a deliberate reference back to any previous claims (in particular multiple dependencies) can be claimed as well, so that any combination of claims and the features thereof are disclosed and can be claimed regardless of the dependencies chosen in the attached claims. The subject-matter which can be claimed comprises not only the combinations of features as set out in the attached claims but also any other combination of features in the claims, wherein each feature mentioned in the claims can be combined with any other feature or combination of other features in the claims. Furthermore, any of the embodiments and features described or depicted herein can be claimed in a separate claim and/or in any combination with any embodiment or feature described or depicted herein or with any of the features of the attached claims.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 illustrates an example network environment associated with a social-networking system.

FIG. 2 illustrates an example social graph.

FIG. 3 illustrates an example flow chart of a method for identifying normalized attribute values.

FIG. 4 illustrates an example product details page.

FIG. 5 illustrates an example product listing page featuring product listings.

FIG. 6 illustrates a pseudo-code example of one implementation of a clustering algorithm.

FIG. 7 illustrates an overview of an offline clustering system and a cluster mapping system.

FIG. 8 illustrates the relationship between the input generator, candidate generator, cluster builder, and product search engine in a clustering system.

FIG. 9 illustrates a pseudo-code example of one implementation of a cluster-mapping algorithm.

FIG. 10 illustrates an example computer system.

DESCRIPTION OF EXAMPLE EMBODIMENTS

FIG. 1 illustrates an example network environment 100 associated with a social-networking system. Network environment 100 includes a client system 130, a social-networking system 160, and a third-party system 170 connected to each other by a network 110. Although FIG. 1 illustrates a particular arrangement of a client system 130, a social-networking system 160, a third-party system 170, and a network 110, this disclosure contemplates any suitable arrangement of a client system 130, a social-networking system 160, a third-party system 170, and a network 110. As an example and not by way of limitation, two or more of a client system 130, a social-networking system 160, and a third-party system 170 may be connected to each other directly, bypassing a network 110. As another example, two or more of a client system 130, a social-networking system 160, and a third-party system 170 may be physically or logically co-located with each other in whole or in part. Moreover, although FIG. 1 illustrates a particular number of client systems 130, social-networking systems 160, third-party systems 170, and networks 110, this disclosure contemplates any suitable number of client systems 130, social-networking systems 160, third-party systems 170, and networks 110. As an example and not by way of limitation, network environment 100 may include multiple client systems 130, social-networking systems 160, third-party systems 170, and networks 110.

This disclosure contemplates any suitable network 110. As an example and not by way of limitation, one or more portions of a network 110 may include an ad hoc network, an intranet, an extranet, a virtual private network (VPN), a local area network (LAN), a wireless LAN (WLAN), a wide area network (WAN), a wireless WAN (WWAN), a metropolitan area network (MAN), a portion of the Internet, a portion of the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN), a cellular telephone network, or a combination of two or more of these. A network 110 may include one or more networks 110.

Links 150 may connect a client system 130, a social-networking system 160, and a third-party system 170 to a communication network 110 or to each other. This disclosure contemplates any suitable links 150. In particular embodiments, one or more links 150 include one or more wireline (such as for example Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) or Data Over Cable Service Interface Specification (DOCSIS)), wireless (such as for example Wi-Fi or Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX)), or optical (such as for example Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) or Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH)) links. In particular embodiments, one or more links 150 each include an ad hoc network, an intranet, an extranet, a VPN, a LAN, a WLAN, a WAN, a WWAN, a MAN, a portion of the Internet, a portion of the PSTN, a cellular technology-based network, a satellite communications technology-based network, another link 150, or a combination of two or more such links 150. Links 150 need not necessarily be the same throughout a network environment 100. One or more first links 150 may differ in one or more respects from one or more second links 150.

In particular embodiments, a client system 130 may be an electronic device including hardware, software, or embedded logic components or a combination of two or more such components and capable of carrying out the appropriate functionalities implemented or supported by a client system 130. As an example and not by way of limitation, a client system 130 may include a computer system such as a desktop computer, notebook or laptop computer, netbook, a tablet computer, e-book reader, GPS device, camera, personal digital assistant (PDA), handheld electronic device, cellular telephone, smartphone, other suitable electronic device, or any suitable combination thereof. This disclosure contemplates any suitable client systems 130. A client system 130 may enable a network user at a client system 130 to access a network 110. A client system 130 may enable its user to communicate with other users at other client systems 130.

In particular embodiments, a client system 130 may include a web browser 132, such as MICROSOFT INTERNET EXPLORER, GOOGLE CHROME or MOZILLA FIREFOX, and may have one or more add-ons, plug-ins, or other extensions, such as TOOLBAR or YAHOO TOOLBAR. A user at a client system 130 may enter a Uniform Resource Locator (URL) or other address directing a web browser 132 to a particular server (such as server 162, or a server associated with a third-party system 170), and the web browser 132 may generate a Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP) request and communicate the HTTP request to server. The server may accept the HTTP request and communicate to a client system 130 one or more Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML) files responsive to the HTTP request. The client system 130 may render a webpage based on the HTML files from the server for presentation to the user. This disclosure contemplates any suitable webpage files. As an example and not by way of limitation, webpages may render from HTML files, Extensible Hyper Text Markup Language (XHTML) files, or Extensible Markup Language (XML) files, according to particular needs. Such pages may also execute scripts such as, for example and without limitation, those written in JAVASCRIPT, JAVA, MICROSOFT SILVERLIGHT, combinations of markup language and scripts such as AJAX (Asynchronous JAVASCRIPT and XML), and the like. Herein, reference to a webpage encompasses one or more corresponding webpage files (which a browser may use to render the webpage) and vice versa, where appropriate. More information on webpages may be found in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/856,202, filed 17 Sep. 2007, which is incorporated by reference.

In particular embodiments, the social-networking system 160 may be a network-addressable computing system that can host an online social network. The social-networking system 160 may generate, store, receive, and send social-networking data, such as, for example, user-profile data, concept-profile data, social-graph information, or other suitable data related to the online social network. The social-networking system 160 may be accessed by the other components of network environment 100 either directly or via a network 110. As an example and not by way of limitation, a client system 130 may access the social-networking system 160 using a web browser 132, or a native application associated with the social-networking system 160 (e.g., a mobile social-networking application, a messaging application, another suitable application, or any combination thereof) either directly or via a network 110. In particular embodiments, the social-networking system 160 may include one or more servers 162. Each server 162 may be a unitary server or a distributed server spanning multiple computers or multiple datacenters. Servers 162 may be of various types, such as, for example and without limitation, web server, news server, mail server, message server, advertising server, file server, application server, exchange server, database server, proxy server, another server suitable for performing functions or processes described herein, or any combination thereof. In particular embodiments, each server 162 may include hardware, software, or embedded logic components or a combination of two or more such components for carrying out the appropriate functionalities implemented or supported by server 162. In particular embodiments, the social-networking system 160 may include one or more data stores 164. Data stores 164 may be used to store various types of information. In particular embodiments, the information stored in data stores 164 may be organized according to specific data structures. In particular embodiments, each data store 164 may be a relational, columnar, correlation, or other suitable database. Although this disclosure describes or illustrates particular types of databases, this disclosure contemplates any suitable types of databases. Particular embodiments may provide interfaces that enable a client system 130, a social-networking system 160, or a third-party system 170 to manage, retrieve, modify, add, or delete, the information stored in data store 164.

In particular embodiments, the social-networking system 160 may store one or more social graphs in one or more data stores 164. In particular embodiments, a social graph may include multiple nodes—which may include multiple user nodes (each corresponding to a particular user) or multiple concept nodes (each corresponding to a particular concept)—and multiple edges connecting the nodes. The social-networking system 160 may provide users of the online social network the ability to communicate and interact with other users. In particular embodiments, users may join the online social network via the social-networking system 160 and then add connections (e.g., relationships) to a number of other users of the social-networking system 160 whom they want to be connected to. Herein, the term “friend” may refer to any other user of the social-networking system 160 with whom a user has formed a connection, association, or relationship via the social-networking system 160.

In particular embodiments, the social-networking system 160 may provide users with the ability to take actions on various types of items or objects, supported by the social-networking system 160. As an example and not by way of limitation, the items and objects may include groups or social networks to which users of the social-networking system 160 may belong, events or calendar entries in which a user might be interested, computer-based applications that a user may use, transactions that allow users to buy or sell items via the service, interactions with advertisements that a user may perform, or other suitable items or objects. A user may interact with anything that is capable of being represented in the social-networking system 160 or by an external system of a third-party system 170, which is separate from the social-networking system 160 and coupled to the social-networking system 160 via a network 110.

In particular embodiments, the social-networking system 160 may be capable of linking a variety of entities. As an example and not by way of limitation, the social-networking system 160 may enable users to interact with each other as well as receive content from third-party systems 170 or other entities, or to allow users to interact with these entities through an application programming interfaces (API) or other communication channels.

In particular embodiments, a third-party system 170 may include one or more types of servers, one or more data stores, one or more interfaces, including but not limited to APIs, one or more web services, one or more content sources, one or more networks, or any other suitable components, e.g., that servers may communicate with. A third-party system 170 may be operated by a different entity from an entity operating the social-networking system 160. In particular embodiments, however, the social-networking system 160 and third-party systems 170 may operate in conjunction with each other to provide social-networking services to users of the social-networking system 160 or third-party systems 170. In this sense, the social-networking system 160 may provide a platform, or backbone, which other systems, such as third-party systems 170, may use to provide social-networking services and functionality to users across the Internet.

In particular embodiments, a third-party system 170 may include a third-party content object provider. A third-party content object provider may include one or more sources of content objects, which may be communicated to a client system 130. As an example and not by way of limitation, content objects may include information regarding things or activities of interest to the user, such as, for example, movie show times, movie reviews, restaurant reviews, restaurant menus, product information and reviews, or other suitable information. As another example and not by way of limitation, content objects may include incentive content objects, such as coupons, discount tickets, gift certificates, or other suitable incentive objects.

In particular embodiments, the social-networking system 160 also includes user-generated content objects, which may enhance a user's interactions with the social-networking system 160. User-generated content may include anything a user can add, upload, send, or “post” to the social-networking system 160. As an example and not by way of limitation, a user communicates posts to the social-networking system 160 from a client system 130. Posts may include data such as status updates or other textual data, location information, photos, videos, links, music or other similar data or media. Content may also be added to the social-networking system 160 by a third-party through a “communication channel,” such as a newsfeed or stream.

In particular embodiments, the social-networking system 160 may include a variety of servers, sub-systems, programs, modules, logs, and data stores. In particular embodiments, the social-networking system 160 may include one or more of the following: a web server, action logger, API-request server, relevance-and-ranking engine, content-object classifier, notification controller, action log, third-party-content-object-exposure log, inference module, authorization/privacy server, search module, advertisement-targeting module, user-interface module, user-profile store, connection store, third-party content store, or location store. The social-networking system 160 may also include suitable components such as network interfaces, security mechanisms, load balancers, failover servers, management-and-network-operations consoles, other suitable components, or any suitable combination thereof. In particular embodiments, the social-networking system 160 may include one or more user-profile stores for storing user profiles. A user profile may include, for example, biographic information, demographic information, behavioral information, social information, or other types of descriptive information, such as work experience, educational history, hobbies or preferences, interests, affinities, or location. Interest information may include interests related to one or more categories. Categories may be general or specific. As an example and not by way of limitation, if a user “likes” an article about a brand of shoes the category may be the brand, or the general category of “shoes” or “clothing.” A connection store may be used for storing connection information about users. The connection information may indicate users who have similar or common work experience, group memberships, hobbies, educational history, or are in any way related or share common attributes. The connection information may also include user-defined connections between different users and content (both internal and external). A web server may be used for linking the social-networking system 160 to one or more client systems 130 or one or more third-party systems 170 via a network 110. The web server may include a mail server or other messaging functionality for receiving and routing messages between the social-networking system 160 and one or more client systems 130. An API-request server may allow a third-party system 170 to access information from the social-networking system 160 by calling one or more APIs. An action logger may be used to receive communications from a web server about a user's actions on or off the social-networking system 160. In conjunction with the action log, a third-party-content-object log may be maintained of user exposures to third-party-content objects. A notification controller may provide information regarding content objects to a client system 130. Information may be pushed to a client system 130 as notifications, or information may be pulled from a client system 130 responsive to a request received from a client system 130. Authorization servers may be used to enforce one or more privacy settings of the users of the social-networking system 160. A privacy setting of a user determines how particular information associated with a user can be shared. The authorization server may allow users to opt in to or opt out of having their actions logged by the social-networking system 160 or shared with other systems (e.g., a third-party system 170), such as, for example, by setting appropriate privacy settings. Third-party-content-object stores may be used to store content objects received from third parties, such as a third-party system 170. Location stores may be used for storing location information received from client systems 130 associated with users. Advertisement-pricing modules may combine social information, the current time, location information, or other suitable information to provide relevant advertisements, in the form of notifications, to a user.

FIG. 2 illustrates an example social graph 200. In particular embodiments, the social-networking system 160 may store one or more social graphs 200 in one or more data stores. In particular embodiments, the social graph 200 may include multiple nodes—which may include multiple user nodes 202 or multiple concept nodes 204—and multiple edges 206 connecting the nodes. The example social graph 200 illustrated in FIG. 2 is shown, for didactic purposes, in a two-dimensional visual map representation. In particular embodiments, a social-networking system 160, a client system 130, or a third-party system 170 may access the social graph 200 and related social-graph information for suitable applications. The nodes and edges of the social graph 200 may be stored as data objects, for example, in a data store (such as a social-graph database). Such a data store may include one or more searchable or queryable indexes of nodes or edges of the social graph 200.

In particular embodiments, a user node 202 may correspond to a user of the social-networking system 160. As an example and not by way of limitation, a user may be an individual (human user), an entity (e.g., an enterprise, business, or third-party application), or a group (e.g., of individuals or entities) that interacts or communicates with or over the social-networking system 160. In particular embodiments, when a user registers for an account with the social-networking system 160, the social-networking system 160 may create a user node 202 corresponding to the user, and store the user node 202 in one or more data stores. Users and user nodes 202 described herein may, where appropriate, refer to registered users and user nodes 202 associated with registered users. In addition or as an alternative, users and user nodes 202 described herein may, where appropriate, refer to users that have not registered with the social-networking system 160. In particular embodiments, a user node 202 may be associated with information provided by a user or information gathered by various systems, including the social-networking system 160. As an example and not by way of limitation, a user may provide his or her name, profile picture, contact information, birth date, sex, marital status, family status, employment, education background, preferences, interests, or other demographic information. In particular embodiments, a user node 202 may be associated with one or more data objects corresponding to information associated with a user. In particular embodiments, a user node 202 may correspond to one or more webpages.

In particular embodiments, a concept node 204 may correspond to a concept. As an example and not by way of limitation, a concept may correspond to a place (such as, for example, a movie theater, restaurant, landmark, or city); a website (such as, for example, a website associated with the social-networking system 160 or a third-party website associated with a web-application server); an entity (such as, for example, a person, business, group, sports team, or celebrity); a resource (such as, for example, an audio file, video file, digital photo, text file, structured document, or application) which may be located within the social-networking system 160 or on an external server, such as a web-application server; real or intellectual property (such as, for example, a sculpture, painting, movie, game, song, idea, photograph, or written work); a game; an activity; an idea or theory; another suitable concept; or two or more such concepts. A concept node 204 may be associated with information of a concept provided by a user or information gathered by various systems, including the social-networking system 160. As an example and not by way of limitation, information of a concept may include a name or a title; one or more images (e.g., an image of the cover page of a book); a location (e.g., an address or a geographical location); a website (which may be associated with a URL); contact information (e.g., a phone number or an email address); other suitable concept information; or any suitable combination of such information. In particular embodiments, a concept node 204 may be associated with one or more data objects corresponding to information associated with concept node 204. In particular embodiments, a concept node 204 may correspond to one or more webpages.

In particular embodiments, a node in the social graph 200 may represent or be represented by a webpage (which may be referred to as a “profile page”). Profile pages may be hosted by or accessible to the social-networking system 160. Profile pages may also be hosted on third-party websites associated with a third-party server 170. As an example and not by way of limitation, a profile page corresponding to a particular external webpage may be the particular external webpage and the profile page may correspond to a particular concept node 204. Profile pages may be viewable by all or a selected subset of other users. As an example and not by way of limitation, a user node 202 may have a corresponding user-profile page in which the corresponding user may add content, make declarations, or otherwise express himself or herself. As another example and not by way of limitation, a concept node 204 may have a corresponding concept-profile page in which one or more users may add content, make declarations, or express themselves, particularly in relation to the concept corresponding to concept node 204.

In particular embodiments, a concept node 204 may represent a third-party webpage or resource hosted by a third-party system 170. The third-party webpage or resource may include, among other elements, content, a selectable or other icon, or other inter-actable object (which may be implemented, for example, in JavaScript, AJAX, or PHP codes) representing an action or activity. As an example and not by way of limitation, a third-party webpage may include a selectable icon such as “like,” “check-in,” “eat,” “recommend,” or another suitable action or activity. A user viewing the third-party webpage may perform an action by selecting one of the icons (e.g., “check-in”), causing a client system 130 to send to the social-networking system 160 a message indicating the user's action. In response to the message, the social-networking system 160 may create an edge (e.g., a check-in-type edge) between a user node 202 corresponding to the user and a concept node 204 corresponding to the third-party webpage or resource and store edge 206 in one or more data stores.

In particular embodiments, a pair of nodes in the social graph 200 may be connected to each other by one or more edges 206. An edge 206 connecting a pair of nodes may represent a relationship between the pair of nodes. In particular embodiments, an edge 206 may include or represent one or more data objects or attributes corresponding to the relationship between a pair of nodes. As an example and not by way of limitation, a first user may indicate that a second user is a “friend” of the first user. In response to this indication, the social-networking system 160 may send a “friend request” to the second user. If the second user confirms the “friend request,” the social-networking system 160 may create an edge 206 connecting the first user's user node 202 to the second user's user node 202 in the social graph 200 and store edge 206 as social-graph information in one or more of data stores 164. In the example of FIG. 2, the social graph 200 includes an edge 206 indicating a friend relation between user nodes 202 of user “A” and user “B” and an edge indicating a friend relation between user nodes 202 of user “C” and user “B.” Although this disclosure describes or illustrates particular edges 206 with particular attributes connecting particular user nodes 202, this disclosure contemplates any suitable edges 206 with any suitable attributes connecting user nodes 202. As an example and not by way of limitation, an edge 206 may represent a friendship, family relationship, business or employment relationship, fan relationship (including, e.g., liking, etc.), follower relationship, visitor relationship (including, e.g., accessing, viewing, checking-in, sharing, etc.), subscriber relationship, superior/subordinate relationship, reciprocal relationship, non-reciprocal relationship, another suitable type of relationship, or two or more such relationships. Moreover, although this disclosure generally describes nodes as being connected, this disclosure also describes users or concepts as being connected. Herein, references to users or concepts being connected may, where appropriate, refer to the nodes corresponding to those users or concepts being connected in the social graph 200 by one or more edges 206.

In particular embodiments, an edge 206 between a user node 202 and a concept node 204 may represent a particular action or activity performed by a user associated with user node 202 toward a concept associated with a concept node 204. As an example and not by way of limitation, as illustrated in FIG. 2, a user may “like,” “attended,” “played,” “listened,” “cooked,” “worked at,” or “watched” a concept, each of which may correspond to an edge type or subtype. A concept-profile page corresponding to a concept node 204 may include, for example, a selectable “check in” icon (such as, for example, a clickable “check in” icon) or a selectable “add to favorites” icon. Similarly, after a user clicks these icons, the social-networking system 160 may create a “favorite” edge or a “check in” edge in response to a user's action corresponding to a respective action. As another example and not by way of limitation, a user (user “C”) may listen to a particular song (“Imagine”) using a particular application (SPOTIFY, which is an online music application). In this case, the social-networking system 160 may create a “listened” edge 206 and a “used” edge (as illustrated in FIG. 2) between user nodes 202 corresponding to the user and concept nodes 204 corresponding to the song and application to indicate that the user listened to the song and used the application. Moreover, the social-networking system 160 may create a “played” edge 206 (as illustrated in FIG. 2) between concept nodes 204 corresponding to the song and the application to indicate that the particular song was played by the particular application. In this case, “played” edge 206 corresponds to an action performed by an external application (SPOTIFY) on an external audio file (the song “Imagine”). Although this disclosure describes particular edges 206 with particular attributes connecting user nodes 202 and concept nodes 204, this disclosure contemplates any suitable edges 206 with any suitable attributes connecting user nodes 202 and concept nodes 204. Moreover, although this disclosure describes edges between a user node 202 and a concept node 204 representing a single relationship, this disclosure contemplates edges between a user node 202 and a concept node 204 representing one or more relationships. As an example and not by way of limitation, an edge 206 may represent both that a user likes and has used at a particular concept. Alternatively, another edge 206 may represent each type of relationship (or multiples of a single relationship) between a user node 202 and a concept node 204 (as illustrated in FIG. 2 between user node 202 for user “E” and concept node 204 for “SPOTIFY”).

In particular embodiments, the social-networking system 160 may create an edge 206 between a user node 202 and a concept node 204 in the social graph 200. As an example and not by way of limitation, a user viewing a concept-profile page (such as, for example, by using a web browser or a special-purpose application hosted by the user's client system 130) may indicate that he or she likes the concept represented by the concept node 204 by clicking or selecting a “Like” icon, which may cause the user's client system 130 to send to the social-networking system 160 a message indicating the user's liking of the concept associated with the concept-profile page. In response to the message, the social-networking system 160 may create an edge 206 between user node 202 associated with the user and concept node 204, as illustrated by “like” edge 206 between the user and concept node 204. In particular embodiments, the social-networking system 160 may store an edge 206 in one or more data stores. In particular embodiments, an edge 206 may be automatically formed by the social-networking system 160 in response to a particular user action. As an example and not by way of limitation, if a first user uploads a picture, watches a movie, or listens to a song, an edge 206 may be formed between user node 202 corresponding to the first user and concept nodes 204 corresponding to those concepts. Although this disclosure describes forming particular edges 206 in particular manners, this disclosure contemplates forming any suitable edges 206 in any suitable manner.

The popularity of e-commerce websites has fueled a rapid expansion of the number of products and services offered for sale online. Low overhead costs and a wide array of available shipping options allow e-retailers to offer the same products that are sold in brick and mortar stores, often for lower prices and with a larger selection of alternative products. Traditional brick and mortar franchises often list their products for sale online too, bringing their own market advantages to bear, such as by offering same day in-store pickup or delivery or lower prices provided by supply chain advantages of high-volume retailers. Today, nearly every product sold in the developed world is available online through numerous sellers.

Usually, a product is made available for sale online via a “product listing” on a webpage. The product listing contains information regarding the product such as, for example, the seller of the product, the location of retail chains of the seller that may carry the product, and a mechanism for a user to purchase the product over the internet (e.g., a “buy it now” or “add to cart” button). In some cases, the same product may be listed on numerous (e.g., hundreds or thousands) of e-commerce websites via different product listings that contain similar listing attributes that are often not standardized. Some websites sell products with different available options, such as different sizes or colors, and may include purchase incentives, such as free shipping or other special features. However, this information is often difficult to aggregate between listings provided by various retailers.

In certain embodiments, e-commerce retailers are identified and content pages are crawled or processed to extract product listing information. For example, Big Co., a fictional department store chain having numerous franchises (e.g., brick and mortar stores) throughout the country, lists products online through its website www.bigcompany.com in addition to selling products in its retail stores. Big Co. lists products from various vendors in different departments or sections within its stores and on its website. The website contains a considerable amount of information regarding each listed products. In certain embodiments, a product catalog, such as a catalog available by subscription (e.g., the CNET product catalog), is analyzed for product listings. Product catalogs and other formats for conveying product information can be analyzed as content pages in accordance with the teachings of the present disclosure.

Often, the following product information is associated with each product listing: title, product reference number, manufacturer, color, size, model, product image(s), alternative product views, availability (e.g., units available in Big Co.'s warehouse and/or at its franchise locations), price, description, special offers, product features, noun, manufacturer's product number (MPN), dimensions, stock keeping unit (SKU), and the like, and, less often, universal product code (UPC). A robust view of available product information is illustrated with reference to product panel 410 in product page 400 of FIG. 4. Big Co. may also release their own product catalog in a human readable, machine readable, or any other format. For example, Big. Co. distributes a structured document that lists each of its products, available options, and list price. The catalog contains some and/or all of the product listing information available on Big. Co.'s website for each listed product. This information, whether released via web offers or catalog offers, can be collected during an information extraction process and processed by a product clustering algorithm or process to properly associate each product offer with one or more known products.

Certain product aggregation services provide price comparison and shopping recommendations. Users can use the service to search for, for example, the best deals on a particular product. These services often collect large datasets of product information extracted from an e-commerce retailers using a web crawler or product information extraction algorithm. The user can select a vendor based on a variety of factors (e.g., the vendor with the best price). The services often charge a referral fee to the e-retailer if the user completes a purchase after following a link from the product comparison website. Such services may additionally display advertisements and earn revenue off of visitor volume. However, often product listings for these services are incomplete or not as robust as they could be. While organizations that administer these sites typically have vast amounts of product data available from crawling e-commerce web sites, they may lack a reliable way to analyze the product offer data in any useful way (e.g., such as providing product recommendations or price comparisons to users). Without a reliable processing algorithm, much of the collected data is wasted or misused.

For example, certain product comparison websites may only use a fraction of collected or available product offer data because they rely on a UPC identifier. UPC's are often used to verify an association between a web listing or product offering and a particular known product. UPC identifiers are rarely used in product listing pages because users are usually not interested in viewing the long unique identifiers for products they are viewing. Often, a user would rather view more accessible information, such as a description of a product or additional product images. For example, since screen space is often at a premium (in desktop and mobile website views), e-retailers must make the most efficient use of available screen resources. Since most shoppers are more interested in, for example, an additional image of the product or a longer description or reviews of the product than viewing the UPC identifier for the product, the other product features are often displayed in the product listing to the exclusion of the UPC. Thus, web crawlers that look for UPC identifiers or grouping algorithms that rely on a UPC code to identify products will be unable to use a majority of the product listing information from a majority of e-retailer websites. Additionally, e-commerce companies may be wary of product comparison tools and see them as a tool to undercut their sales. Accordingly, e-commerce websites may hide or obstruct information useful for comparing their product with other products available from other vendors.

Another option available for product comparison sites is obtaining or acquiring a license to product listing catalogs maintained by certain third parties (e.g., CNET). These product listing catalogs can contain information regarding product attributes and product offers from various vendors. However, catalog data is often not very robust. For example, certain vendors may opt out of listing their products in such a catalog. A vendor may make this decision at least in part because, in some instances, the third party that issues the product catalog may charge the vendor a fee for listing the product in its catalog. Other vendors may not know about the catalog or may not care to list their product with the catalog. Thus, while a curated set of product attributes for each offer is likely maintained by the catalog issuer, the catalog data is often incomplete with respect to the full extent of available offers for a given product. Moreover, some catalogs require that the product comparison site take out a license to the catalog which may be expensive. Still further, catalogs often focus on a particular market segment, such as Technology, Home Goods, Fashion, and the like. Within the Technology segment alone, there may be separate catalogs for Information Technology, Consumer Electronics, Office Products, and Appliances. A product comparison website wishing to obtain information regarding a wide array of products in various market segments may require a large number of catalogs, adding to expense and complexity of catalog-based product offer aggregation and comparison services.

In certain embodiments, a product clustering algorithm can be used to overcome some and/or all of the above described deficiencies associated with traditional product grouping techniques. Certain product clustering algorithms use a set of sample product offers having a common schema to determine a set of normalized attribute values for a particular product. For example, one product clustering algorithm analyzes a data set of thousands, millions, or more product offers to identify distinct products being offered for sale and determines normalized attribute values for each distinct product. This process may be referred to as product attribute “disambiguation.” The normalized attribute values may serve as a set of rules for defining when a particular product offer should be associated with the product. Once the rules are established, the entire set of product offers can be scored against the normalized attributes. The rules are used to determine whether the scores evince a likelihood that the product offer is associated with the product. The process of using normalized attributes and rules to associate candidate product offers with a particular product may be referred to as “product clustering” or “cluster mapping.” Once a set of products are “clustered,” or associated with the particular product, the individual product offer information can be presented to users in various practical applications. For example, product offer information can be used to suggest a product offer to a user based on interactions with a website that describe a particular user's interests or tastes. As another example, product offer information can be used in conjunction with user interest information to display relevant and effective advertisements.

In certain embodiments, a particular product being offered for sale is identified. For example, an administrator may manually identify a product. As another example, distinct products being offered for sale are identified by creating “seed” product offers. “Seed” product offers can refer to product offer information that contains a most “complete” set of attributes. For example, the seed product can be determined by a process that scans attribute values of each product offer to determine a most “complete” set of attribute values. The term “complete” set of attribute values may refer to a product offer that has attribute value entries for a greatest number of attributes. A complete set of attributes may also refer to a product offer that has values provided for certain key attributes. The completeness of the attribute data may be an indication of the quality of the product offer for the purposes of determining normalized attributes or grouping additional offers.

For example, universal product code (“UPC”) attribute values may be rare since this information is typically not user-friendly or conducive to a traditional user purchasing a product. Accordingly, UPC's are traditionally not provided on product pages and thus are not usually recoverable by product information extraction processes. Accordingly, a “complete” set of attributes may include a UPC entry. Other factors and considerations can be applied when determining a complete set of attributes for purposes of identifying a seed product offer. Seed product offers can often be relied on to identify distinct products or product offers because they do not overlap with other product offers or products. Using the above example and with reference to the UPC attribute, while it is rare to find UPC data for product offers, it is also unlikely or impossible for two different products to have the same UPC attribute value. Accordingly, while this value is unlikely to be useful for grouping large numbers of product offers together, it may be useful for identifying distinct products. Once the distinct products are identified, similarities between other attribute values can be used to accurately group or cluster large numbers of products together. This logic also applies to other attribute values, such as MPN, model, etc.

In certain embodiments, distinct products can be identified with reference to a particular e-commerce website. In this example, a trusted website is crawled to determine discrete product listings. The trusted web-site, for example, may be known to provide comprehensive information regarding camera products. The web-site may list each distinct type of camera available on the market. The trusted website may be determined with reference to total traffic to the site, total number of products available on the site, or any other measure of confidence in the site. However, while the site may be relied on for discovering distinct products, such as cameras having similar model numbers but different functional capabilities, the trusted site does not provide the most complete set of attributes for each product or the attributes that best describe the majority of product offers for the product. Accordingly, normalized product attributes are determined with reference to a much larger data set of product offers.

In certain embodiments, queries are executed through a specialized search engine that normalizes query attributes for execution on product offer databases. The search engine queries one or more databases to return the best top-K candidates that are similar to the requested product, while eliminating products with similar names that are not similar to the requested product. In certain embodiments, the search engine uses information from particular query attributes to generate a modified query that, when executed, is better tuned to retrieve responsive products. For example, a first retailer may have named a product “Picture SD-100 camera,” while a second retailer names the same product “Picture sd 100 digital camera.” If a classic relational database query is used, it is unlikely that both entries would be retrieved using a traditional database query. For example, the query for “picture” (which is the only word that is common in both of these product titles) would be far too broad and return many non-responsive products. Thus, a query designed to identify the largest common character set between products is problematic. A specialized search engine can be used to normalize such queries. For example, the word “digital-camera” is very similar to the word “camera.” The search engine analyzes common terms between product listings to determine effective search strings and identify queries for those products within the search strings or queries. As another example, “sd 100” is very similar to “SD-100” and is a fairly unique identifier (though product identifiers or model numbers are rarely guaranteed to be unique). Accordingly, by normalizing both of these query terms (i.e., digital-camera and SD-100) a more effective search can be executed on one or more underlying repositories of product or product offer information.

The search engine is also effective at narrowing the scope of returned products and product offers. Queries on traditional databases have a tendency to return many accessories or products that are only tangentially related to the underlying targeted product. For example, if a query includes the phrase “picture sd100 camera,” it will not only return cameras, but will also return many results including batteries, cases, lenses, etc. However, none of these products are directly related to the underlying query, and thus should be eliminated from any result set of candidates. For example, inclusion of many unrelated products may result in an unreliable cluster rule. In certain embodiments, certain search query attributes may indicate that inclusion of such items is intended and/or desirable. For example, if the purpose of a query is to identify accessories for a particular product, then these results would be useful. The search engine can also be used to extract context data from the search query to determine whether or not accessories or related items should be included. The search query normalization may be modified according to any appropriate determination.

In certain embodiments, product clustering helps improve search experience, for example, by supporting price comparison to identify product offer deals or values for customers. In certain embodiments, the relevance ranking of products is improved. For example, if multiple retailers are selling the same camera, it should be ranked higher for the generic query “digital camera” than other cameras that are not as popular or as readily available. Clustering may additionally improve result diversity in search results. For example, duplicate product offers from multiple stores can be eliminated in favor of showing just the best value for each responsive product.

In certain embodiments, product clustering and associated algorithms can aggregate product reviews and likes across retailers. For example, each discrete camera can have multiple reviews imported from each retailer site that sells that product. This allows consumers to be more informed about each product before making his/her purchase. In certain embodiments, clustering allows for the mining of product information from a wide array of different retailer's information regarding that product. For example, if one retailer says that a certain batter is associated with a particular camera, that battery can be recommended for use with a product offer for that camera from a different retailer. Clustering products together allows aggregation of this information.

With reference to FIG. 6, a pseudo-code implementation of a product clustering algorithm is illustrated in accordance with a non-limiting embodiment of the present disclosure. The list L of seed products in line 601 may refer to a set of seed products that each describe complete or near-complete attribute values for a variety of distinct products. In line 603, the process performs an iterative loop on each seed product in the list.

With reference to FIG. 3, at step 310 seed offers are determined using the data set of product offers. For example, and as referenced above, seed offers are product offers that have been determined to contain a most complete set of attributes. “Completeness” can be determined by a number of attribute values associated with the product offer. For example, product listing pages vary with respect to the amount of detail they provide for listed products. A product information extraction process is limited by the amount of information provided on a product listing page, as well as other content parsing limitations. For example, a product listing aggregation service “crawls” content pages associated with e-commerce retailers to extract product information. In certain embodiments, a crawling process converts particular pages identified during a crawl into a hierarchical tree-based data structure that contains information regarding content elements associated with the page. The content elements are analyzed to identify product listings, reviews, and other identifiable features of each page. A context of identified features is determined and used to categorize pages. For example, www.bigcompany.com is structured so that product listings are accessible in multiple views on a particular page. The context of the page may relate to how products are listed within the page. The context of the page may include other attributes including size and positioning of the products, other identified features on the page, incoming and outgoing links, relational aspects of user interface items on the page, and various other page-related characteristics. A home page of bigcompany.com lists several featured items in a featured products content panel. The configuration of the content panels on the home page contributes to the context of the page and/or the context of identified features on the page. The context can be used to determine any interrelation between page features and features on the current page and/or features on additional (e.g., linked) pages. For example, clicking a featured item displayed in a home page content panel loads a new related page that lists products that are related to the home screen content. Additional pages of the bigcompany.com website showcase product listings using other content panels that are optimized for displaying large numbers of related products for comparison purposes. While the features or controls of the home page may be designed to show a random sampling of representative goods (with a goal of drawing in new users by showing available products that new users may be interested in), the page features or controls of product listing pages may be more conducive to product iteration and information extraction. Each of these page features can be used to identify product offers, and individual product attributes for each offer. This process is also described at line 601 in FIG. 6.

For example, with reference to FIG. 4, the following information can be extracted from webpage 400: product image, reviews, title, description, model number, features, price, item number (MPN), fit information, sizing information, color, size, and any other identifiable attributes describing product listing 410. Notably, UPC is not present in the provided details for product 410. Accordingly, while product detail page 400 provides a robust set of product attributes for the product, it may not be considered a complete listing of product attributes, and thus may not be selected as the seed product. However, the seed product “completeness” determination may be relative based on available attribute values of similar product offers. In certain embodiments, and with reference to other product offers, the information extracted from product offer 410 may be considered the most complete. Thus, in certain embodiments, the information extracted from product 410 may be selected as the seed product.

In certain embodiments, completeness of the seed offer includes an assessment of which attribute values are available for the product offer (with an understanding that certain values are more important than others), a total number of attribute values that are available, a quality of the attribute values available, and the like. The assessment of product offer attribute values may be made on a sliding scale. For example, if a product offer includes an MPN attribute value but is deficient in one or more other attributes (i.e., does not have associated values for other, less important attributes), the product offer may still be selected as the seed offer due to its high quality attribute values. Such a product offer may be selected even though other product offers may have more lower-quality attribute values because the MPN attribute may be considered a high quality attribute. High quality attributes may indicate an increased probability that the product offer accurately describes the particular product. For example, the product offer may be considered reliable if it includes information regarding the product's MPN, UPC, or other unique product identifier. Thus, although a fewer total number of attribute values are provided for these product offers, they may still be relied on for attribute normalization with greater certainty than other product offers with lower-quality attribute values.

At step 320, a query is generated based on the seed offer. In certain embodiments, the query includes one or more attribute/value pairs from the seed offer. For example, the data set of product offers may be organized in a database. As mentioned above, the product offers may conform to a common schema. The schema defines a detailed set of key product attributes that help identify products and product offers. Thus, while most product offers will not have values for every attribute in the schema, the product offers will have at least some values for each attribute in the schema. In certain embodiments, the product offers can include a NULL value for the attribute if no attribute value is collected during the product information extraction process. Referring to step 320, the query can be designed as a SQL query based on the common schema. For example, the query includes a SELECT statement with a WHERE clause for particular attribute values. In certain embodiments, the query conforms to a syntax for an intelligent search engine. The search engine may have advanced searching capabilities and be optimized for searching large data sets, such as the product offering data. For example, in certain embodiments, the product offering data that is collected during the information extraction process is non-standardized and not processed before queries are executed. The attributes may be stored as “features” in a machine learning context in association with the product offer from which they were extracted. The search engine may be adapted to search these features and retrieve related product offers based on attribute values of the seed offer. Those of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate the wide variety of storage and searching mechanisms that can be used to structure or formulate the described seed product queries. This process is performed at line 604 of pseudo-code 600.

At step 330, the query is executed on the data set of product offers. Following along in the pseudo-code 600 example, this process is performed at line 602. The resulting product offers returned from the query are considered candidate offers. “Candidate” offers may refer to offers that are likely associated with the selected product. In certain embodiments, the seed offer query is designed to retrieve a number of results, or candidate offers, within a particular range. For example, the attribute normalization process may work best on a particular number, or range of numbers, of candidate product offers. By way of explanation, too many candidate offers may water-down the normalized attribute values with inaccurate values that actually describe other products or that do not accurately describe the current product. Too few candidate offers may not provide the normalization process with an adequate number of attribute values to properly generalize about the many possible attribute values that may be encountered in the data set. For example, a small candidate offer sample size may lead to under-sampling of the possible attribute values. Thus, attribute values that are strong indicators of product offer association with a product may not be incorporated into the normalized attribute set if the set of candidate offers is too small.

In certain embodiments, in order to retrieve the desired number of candidate product offers, the query may, during an initial iteration, be designed in a general manner. For example, the query can be designed to use only one or two attribute values of the seed product offer. The attribute values used may be determined to be attributes that distinguish the product offers from other similar but unrelated products. For example, the algorithm may analyze the title and use a subset of keywords from the title (or other attributes like brand or model number) as the query. If the title is “Picture Powershot Alph 115 16MP Digital Camera (Silver) (OLD MODEL),” certain key terms can be extracted from that title and used to search other attributes. For example, the general query may be “Picture ALPH 115.” Such a normalized query string may be the result of identifying distinguish terms from such a long title. For example the term “Silver” or “old model” in a title may be inserted by a particular vendor and can be eliminated as those terms are not useful in identifying matching products across vendors. In certain embodiments, the attributes may be scaled based on a level of generality. The level of generality gauges the attributes' propensity to identify the product. For example, the brand attribute has a relatively low propensity to identify the product since a brand typically has several products. However, the brand attribute is still important when differentiating between similar product titles or descriptions. For example, the brand attribute is particularly useful when a product is genericized to the point of sharing a title with other manufacturers (i.e., when the title of the product does not distinguish the product from other similar products by other manufacturers). As yet another example, query modifications may take the form of additions to the query string from additional terms that are not part of the original query but that further distinguish the query. Using the example above, the system may identify that the desired product is a camera based on certain terms identified in the query string. The system may add the term “camera” to the list of key distinguishing attributes for identifying additional responsive product offers.

At step 350 and in coordination with step 340, a total number of candidate offers returned from each iteration of query execution is determined. The query is modified to return fewer candidates if the determined number is above a predetermined number. Query modifications in accordance with step 350 may include modifying the selectivity of the query. For example, the query can be modified to accept only exact matches. As another example, the query can be modified to be more permissive and accept a greater degree of variance between attribute values considered to be “matching.” Query modifications may include adding additional query attribute values. For example, if a query that searches for product offers that match title and brand attributes of the seed product offer returns too many results, the query can be modified to add a clause to find hits for the model number attribute. Addition of an additional seed product attribute to the query should, most likely, have the effect of narrowing the result set. In certain embodiments, step 340 may determine if the total candidate offers are above a predetermined number. Query modifications intended to increase the number of candidate offers returned can be performed in response to such a determination. The predetermined number is selected to provide a data set sized for optimal attribute normalization. This and the following steps are performed with reference to step 608 and 609 of pseudo-code 600.

Once the proper number of candidate offers are returned from the query process, the clustering and attribute normalization algorithm determines common attribute values across different candidate offers at step 360. In certain embodiments, common attribute values are tallied across each candidate offer and ranked based on the most often or most frequently occurring attribute values for each attribute in the common schema. For example, with reference to the product shown in FIG. 4, the candidate offer set generated using a seed query from the product details in details pane 410 includes 300 candidate product offers for the same coat displayed in product details section 412. Of the 300 candidate product offers, 270 include the brand “Coat House,” 27 include the brand “CoatHouse,” and 3 have no brand attribute value supplied. Continuing with this example, of the 300 candidate product offer, 150 include the product title “Iridescent Stadium Jacket,” 100 include the product title “Stadium Jacket,” and 50 include the product title “Jacket.” This process continues until each attribute value of each attribute in the common schema is accounted for.

In certain embodiments, the attribute value matching takes values that are closely related but not exact matches into consideration. These near-matches may be considered matches, or included in the cumulative tally for the value as a fraction of a point. In the brand example described above, the value “Coat House” is similar to the value “CoatHouse.” In certain embodiments, the matches for “CoatHouse” can be scored as full matches for “Coat House,” while in other embodiments, only full or partial credit for a match is given to the “CoatHouse” values. Using the above example, if a full match point is given for near-matches, the “Coat House” value may receive a score of 297 (270 for Coat House+27 for CoatHouse). If partial match points are given for near-matches, the “Coat House” value may receive a score of 283.5 (270 for Coat House+13.5 for CoatHouse). Any scoring system may be applied that assigns full or partial weight for hard or soft matches.

At step 370, each attribute value of each candidate offer is scored. In certain embodiments, the attribute values are scored based whether they match the common attribute values and counts for those values as described in step 360. For example, an attribute value that exactly matches the most commonly occurring attribute value receives a score of 1. An attribute value that exactly matches the second most commonly occurring attribute value receives a score of 0.5 (one-half point). Using the above example, a candidate offer having a brand attribute value of “Coat House” receives a score of 1, since “Coat House” is the most commonly occurring brand in the set (i.e., appears in the candidate set 270/300 candidates). A candidate offer having a brand attribute value of “Jacket House” (who for purposes of this example may be considered a competitor of the Coat House brand), may receive a score of 0 for that attribute value. A candidate offer having a brand attribute value of “CoatHouse” may receive a score of 0.5. In certain embodiments, score points are only awarded for a match with the most commonly occurring attribute values. Using the above example, the “CoatHouse” attribute value may receive a score of 0.

In certain embodiments, the scores are weighted based on the quality of the match. In other words, attribute values that do not exactly match the common values are still awarded scores. For example, partial or full match scores can be assigned for partial matches, misspellings, errors, abbreviations, acronyms, and the like. For example, a “vacuum cleaner” may be abbreviated as a “vac” or “vacuum.” Such abbreviations may be considered equal to a full match of the “vacuum cleaner” attribute and may be awarded a score as if the term was a hard match. In certain embodiments, partial or no score credit is given for abbreviations.

Certain attributes are structured to contain a set of values. For example, a “noun” feature includes any and/or all values from the set of product nouns. The noun feature may include the values “digital camera” and “camera” as product noun values. As another example, a vacuum may have several product nouns including “vac,” “vacuum,” and “vacuum cleaner.” Comparison of these values becomes more complex, since many possible comparison combinations are possible. Other issues arise such as how to score attribute values for complex attributes with some matching components and other components that do not match. In certain embodiments, complex attribute scoring is achieved through a scoring algorithm that matches each common attribute value component (the common product may also have complex attributes) against each candidate noun value. For example, each component of the noun attribute described above of the most commonly occurring noun is matched against each component of the noun attribute of each candidate offer. A cumulative score for the attribute is generated by considering each match score.

The attribute scores are determined by multiplying the common attribute value score by the match score. For example, a candidate brand attribute value of “CoatHouse” receives a match score of 0.5*270=135 (i.e., 0.5 match score*270 times that “Coat House” was found in the brand attribute of the candidate offers).

In certain embodiments, different attribute values are used in the comparison in order to catch errors in the product information extraction processes. For example, some websites may list a product's brand in the same text region as the product's title or model. Such a configuration may be confusing to an information extraction process tasked with extracting attribute values from non-standardized web pages. Accordingly, since candidate offers are assembled with information from such an information extraction process, it is likely that attribute values may wind up in the wrong attribute. By way of example, with reference to FIG. 4, product details panel 412 has a product title/model text region that contains the brand “Coat House” with the product title “Iridescent Stadium Jacket.” In this example, these two distinct attributes may be hosted in the same content panel or text element. Parsing the brand from the product title may be difficult or impossible for an automated system to accomplish. As a result, brand information is pulled into the product title or model number attribute. The opposite is equally possible. In order to catch errors in mapping attributes from a product details page to a candidate offer, several seed offer attribute values may be compared against the candidate's attribute values. For example, when scoring the brand attribute for a particular candidate offer representative of the product shown in panel 412 of FIG. 4, both the brand and product attribute values from the seed product may be compared against the brand and/or product attribute values of the candidate offer. In certain embodiments, matches between a candidate offer brand attribute value and a seed offer product model attribute may be given a near-full match score, since the misplaced attribute value is likely due to an error during information extraction of either the brand and/or product model attributes of either the seed offer or the candidate offer. For example, the score assigned in this instance may be 0.96.

For example, the following table can be used to set match scores. This example is illustrative of the scoring rules for a “noun” attribute but is also exemplary of other attribute scoring rules:

Match type: Match Score: Exact 1.0 Match all title 0.96 Match contextual 0.96 Match all 0.81 Match last 0.3

Referring to the scoring system described above, an exact attribute match (e.g., candidate offer noun value to common attribute noun value) is given a score of 1.0. A match of the candidate offer noun attribute to a common attribute title value is given a score of 0.96. Other attribute values can be used for the “match contextual” match. For example, if the candidate offer noun value matches one or more common attribute values, the match is given a score of 0.96.

As another example, consider a matching algorithm applied for the brand attribute. If the candidate brand attribute value is equal to the common brand value then the match is given a score of 1. If the candidate brand attribute value contains the common brand value after, for example, the words “for” and/or “with” (as in the phrase “for use with Coat House Jackets”) then the match is given a score of 0. If the candidate product attribute value matches the common product attribute value but the candidate brand attribute value is different than the common product brand attribute value then the match is given a score of 0.65. If the candidate offer product title contains the common product brand value then the match is given a score of 0.85. Those of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate the wide variety of matching algorithms that may be applied for each attribute.

At step 380, attribute value scores are compared against threshold scores to determine if each candidate offer attribute value should be added to the normalized set of attribute values. The threshold scores can be predetermined. Attribute values having scores above the level are selected as normalized attribute values. The normalized attribute value list may include several acceptable attribute values for each attribute. For example, the brand values “Coat House” and “CoatHouse” may be determined to be above the threshold score for a normalized attribute value. Using the above example, a threshold score of 130 may be determined to be the cutoff score; however, any scoring system or threshold can be used for determining normalized attribute values.

The normalized attribute values can be added to an internal catalog listing for the product. The catalog provides a description of normalized attributes of different products that are available through various retailers on the web. The catalog can be used to associate new product offers with known products. For example, as the product information extraction process continues to crawl the web and look for new product offers, the extracted information is compared to the normalized attributes to make a determination as to whether the newly found product offer is related to any existing products in the catalog.

With reference to FIG. 7, a high-level system diagram is illustrated that shows the relationship between an offline clustering system and a cluster mapping system. The clustering system may generate product clusters and mapping rules, and may run continuously on unclustered offers (i.e., new product offers that are discovered and added to the clustering system but have not yet been clustered into the existing clusters). New products may be added to or mapped to a cluster as those products are discovered. As discussed above, a cluster may group products or product offers together by features. For example, nouns, categories, brands, models, MPN, UPC, price range, etc., may be used to cluster products.

With reference to FIG. 8, a system diagram of a clustering system is illustrated, including an input generator, which generates an ordered list of seed products, a candidate generator, which generates queries to find products that are similar to the seed item, and a cluster builder, which builds a cluster from a set of products. A product search engine is also used to normalize queries and return responsive candidate offers.

In certain embodiments, the candidate generator of FIG. 8 may generate boolean search queries from seed products, and find products that match the query. For example, the query templates may take the following form:

(upc OR mpn OR model)

(upc OR mpn OR model) AND (noun OR brand)

(upc OR mpn OR model) AND (noun OR brand) AND terms)

Those of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that these examples are only illustrative of the potential query templates that may be generated. In certain embodiments, the values of the template attribute may be selected from distinguishing terms from any attribute of a query. For example, terms from a title that are determined to distinguish that product from another product can be inserted into appropriate attributes.

In certain embodiments, the cluster builder receives a set of seed products and a set of candidate products as inputs. The cluster builder outputs a cluster of candidate products by, for example, finding the combination of attributes that accounts for the most products in the set of candidate products. For example, the joint assignment of noun, brand, MPN, UPC, and model that accounts for the most products can be used. Price outliers may be identified using a variant of inter-quartile ranges to eliminate outlying products.

In certain embodiments, the cluster rule mapping system receives products and a rules index as inputs. The cluster rule mapping system outputs mapped clusters. In certain embodiments, candidate clusters are determined for the input product. For each candidate cluster, the system checks if the input product matches the query for each cluster and scores the product against the cluster features. A decision tree rule is applied on the feature scores and a price filter is applied before the product is added to a cluster.

The teachings of the present disclosure may improve upon previous approaches including hierarchical agglomerative clustering (HAC), K-means, or mapping to external catalogs (e.g., CNET and other). HAC solutions may pose problems related to defining pair-wise similarity in noisy and missing data. Moreover, it is often difficult to identify representative products for merged products. K-means solutions often make it hard to identify the correct k-value to return the best data set. Centroid measurement and distance measurements are also difficult to compute.

In certain embodiments, a clustering system can be separated into two general parts: (1) a process for forming clusters (i.e., cluster generation or “clustering) and (2) a process for utilizing these clusters to map new incoming product items (i.e., cluster mapping). After clustering is performed, rules are loaded by another service called a cluster mapper. With the addition of incremental clustering, this rules-index is refreshed every day. Thus, all newly acquired product listings are sent to this cluster-mapper system that executes all previously generated cluster-rules on it. When a matching rule for the listing is found, the listing is mapped to that cluster. However, it is possible that none of the rules match, in which case a new product cluster is generated through the incremental clustering process. An example pseudo-code example of one implementation of a cluster mapping system is illustrated in FIG. 9. For example, a cluster mapper receives a product P and a rules index R for a set of clusters having a version V. At line 901, if the input product has a ‘cluster id’ attribute with a version number that matches version V of the rules index R, then the system returns. This line may serve as a check to ensure that the product has not already been mapped to an existing cluster. At line 902 and 903, if the product has not already been clustered, candidate clusters are identified for the input product. At line 904, the candidate clusters identified in line 903 are enumerated through and, at line 905, the boolean query for each candidate cluster is compared against the input product to determine whether the product satisfies the query. At line 906, the product is scored against the cluster to determine feature scores. At 907, a decision tree rule is applied on the features scores for the product and at line 908, a check is run against the product price to determine whether it is within the cluster price range. At line 909, the output mapped cluster id value is returned as the largest cluster.

In certain embodiments, cluster merging is applied to combine two or more similar product clusters. For example, when clusters are formed, two different clusters are formed for the same underlying product. Cluster maintenance processes, such as cluster merging, allow for identification of redundant or duplicate clusters that may not be identifiable upon cluster creation. For example, the redundancy of a particular cluster may only be identified after additional products are added to the clusters through incremental clustering operations. In certain embodiments, after clustering is performed, a cluster merging process is run that checks for near-duplicate clusters and merges them into one.

In particular embodiments, an advertisement may be text (which may be HTML-linked), one or more images (which may be HTML-linked), one or more videos, audio, other suitable digital object files, a suitable combination of these, or any other suitable advertisement in any suitable digital format presented on one or more web pages, in one or more e-mails, or in connection with search results requested by a user. In addition or as an alternative, an advertisement may be one or more sponsored stories (e.g., a news-feed or ticker item on social-networking system 160). A sponsored story may be a social action by a user (such as “liking” a page, “liking” or commenting on a post on a page, RSVPing to an event associated with a page, voting on a question posted on a page, checking in to a place, using an application or playing a game, or “liking” or sharing a website) that an advertiser promotes, for example, by having the social action presented within a pre-determined area of a profile page of a user or other page, presented with additional information associated with the advertiser, bumped up or otherwise highlighted within news feeds or tickers of other users, or otherwise promoted. The advertiser may pay to have the social action promoted. The social action may be promoted within or on social-networking system 160. In addition or as an alternative, the social action may be promoted outside or off of social-networking system 160, where appropriate. In particular embodiments, a page may be an on-line presence (such as a webpage or website within or outside of social-networking system 160) of a business, organization, or brand facilitating its sharing of stories and connecting with people. A page may be customized, for example, by adding applications, posting stories, or hosting events.

A sponsored story may be generated from stories in users' news feeds and promoted to specific areas within displays of users' web browsers when viewing a web page associated with social-networking system 160. Sponsored stories are more likely to be viewed by users, at least in part because sponsored stories generally involve interactions or suggestions by the users' friends, fan pages, or other connections. In connection with sponsored stories, particular embodiments may utilize one or more systems, components, elements, functions, methods, operations, or steps disclosed in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/327,557, entitled “Sponsored Stories Unit Creation from Organic Activity Stream” and filed 15 Dec. 2011, U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2012/0203831, entitled “Sponsored Stories Unit Creation from Organic Activity Stream” and filed 3 Feb. 2012 as U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/020,745, or U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2012/0233009, entitled “Endorsement Subscriptions for Sponsored Stories” and filed 9 Mar. 2011 as U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/044,506, which are all incorporated herein by reference as an example and not by way of limitation. In particular embodiments, sponsored stories may utilize computer-vision algorithms to detect products in uploaded images or photos lacking an explicit connection to an advertiser as disclosed in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/212,356, entitled “Computer-Vision Content Detection for Sponsored Stories” and filed 18 Aug. 2011, which is incorporated herein by reference as an example and not by way of limitation.

As described above, an advertisement may be text (which may be HTML-linked), one or more images (which may be HTML-linked), one or more videos, audio, one or more ADOBE FLASH files, a suitable combination of these, or any other suitable advertisement in any suitable digital format. In particular embodiments, an advertisement may be requested for display within third-party webpages, social-networking-system webpages, or other pages. An advertisement may be displayed in a dedicated portion of a page, such as in a banner area at the top of the page, in a column at the side of the page, in a GUI of the page, in a pop-up window, over the top of content of the page, or elsewhere with respect to the page. In addition or as an alternative, an advertisement may be displayed within an application or within a game. An advertisement may be displayed within dedicated pages, requiring the user to interact with or watch the advertisement before the user may access a page, utilize an application, or play a game. The user may, for example view the advertisement through a web browser.

A user may interact with an advertisement in any suitable manner. The user may click or otherwise select the advertisement, and the advertisement may direct the user (or a browser or other application being used by the user) to a page associated with the advertisement. At the page associated with the advertisement, the user may take additional actions, such as purchasing a product or service associated with the advertisement, receiving information associated with the advertisement, or subscribing to a newsletter associated with the advertisement. An advertisement with audio or video may be played by selecting a component of the advertisement (like a “play button”). In particular embodiments, an advertisement may include one or more games, which a user or other application may play in connection with the advertisement. An advertisement may include functionality for responding to a poll or question in the advertisement.

An advertisement may include social-networking-system functionality that a user may interact with. For example, an advertisement may enable a user to “like” or otherwise endorse the advertisement by selecting an icon or link associated with endorsement. Similarly, a user may share the advertisement with another user (e.g., through social-networking system 160) or RSVP (e.g., through social-networking system 160) to an event associated with the advertisement. In addition or as an alternative, an advertisement may include social-networking-system content directed to the user. For example, an advertisement may display information about a friend of the user within social-networking system 160 who has taken an action associated with the subject matter of the advertisement.

Social-networking-system functionality or content may be associated with an advertisement in any suitable manner. For example, an advertising system (which may include hardware, software, or both for receiving bids for advertisements and selecting advertisements in response) may retrieve social-networking functionality or content from social-networking system 160 and incorporate the retrieved social-networking functionality or content into the advertisement before serving the advertisement to a user. Examples of selecting and providing social-networking-system functionality or content with an advertisement are disclosed in U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2012/0084160, entitled “Providing Social Endorsements with Online Advertising” and filed 5 Oct. 2010 as U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/898,662, and in U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2012/0232998, entitled “Selecting Social Endorsement Information for an Advertisement for Display to a Viewing User” and filed 8 Mar. 2011 as U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/043,424, which are both incorporated herein by reference as examples only and not by way of limitation. Interacting with an advertisement that is associated with social-networking-system functionality or content may cause information about the interaction to be displayed in a profile page of the user in social-networking-system 160.

Particular embodiments may facilitate the delivery of advertisements to users that are more likely to find the advertisements more relevant or useful. For example, an advertiser may realize higher conversion rates (and therefore higher return on investment (ROI) from advertising) by identifying and targeting users that are more likely to find its advertisements more relevant or useful. The advertiser may use user-profile information in social-networking system 160 to identify those users. In addition or as an alternative, social-networking system 160 may use user-profile information in social-networking system 160 to identify those users for the advertiser. As examples and not by way of limitation, particular embodiments may target users with the following: invitations or suggestions of events; suggestions regarding coupons, deals, or wish-list items; suggestions regarding friends' life events; suggestions regarding groups; advertisements; or social advertisements. Such targeting may occur, where appropriate, on or within social-networking system 160, off or outside of social-networking system 160, or on mobile computing devices of users. When on or within social-networking system 160, such targeting may be directed to users' news feeds, search results, e-mail or other in-boxes, or notifications channels or may appear in particular area of web pages of social-networking system 160, such as a right-hand side of a web page in a concierge or grouper area (which may group along a right-hand rail advertisements associated with the same concept, node, or object) or a network-ego area (which may be based on what a user is viewing on the web page and a current news feed of the user). When off or outside of social-networking system 160, such targeting may be provided through a third-party website, e.g., involving an ad exchange or a social plug-in. When on a mobile computing device of a user, such targeting may be provided through push notifications to the mobile computing device.

Targeting criteria used to identify and target users may include explicit, stated user interests on social-networking system 160 or explicit connections of a user to a node, object, entity, brand, or page on social-networking system 160. In addition or as an alternative, such targeting criteria may include implicit or inferred user interests or connections (which may include analyzing a user's history, demographic, social or other activities, friends' social or other activities, subscriptions, or any of the preceding of other users similar to the user (based, e.g., on shared interests, connections, or events)). Particular embodiments may utilize platform targeting, which may involve platform and “like” impression data; contextual signals (e.g., “Who is viewing now or has viewed recently the page for COCA-COLA?”); light-weight connections (e.g., “check-ins”); connection lookalikes; fans; extracted keywords; EMU advertising; inferential advertising; coefficients, affinities, or other social-graph information; friends-of-friends connections; pinning or boosting; deals; polls; household income, social clusters or groups; products detected in images or other media; social- or open-graph edge types; geo-prediction; views of profile or pages; status updates or other user posts (analysis of which may involve natural-language processing or keyword extraction); events information; or collaborative filtering. Identifying and targeting users may also include privacy settings (such as user opt-outs), data hashing, or data anonymization, as appropriate.

To target users with advertisements, particular embodiments may utilize one or more systems, components, elements, functions, methods, operations, or steps disclosed in the following, which are all incorporated herein by reference as examples and not by way of limitation: U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2009/0119167, entitled “Social Advertisements and Other Informational Messages on a Social Networking Website and Advertising Model for Same” and filed 18 Aug. 2008 as U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/193,702; U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2009/0070219, entitled “Targeting Advertisements in a Social Network” and filed 20 Aug. 2008 as U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/195,321; U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2012/0158501, entitled “Targeting Social Advertising to Friends of Users Who Have Interacted With an Object Associated with the Advertising” and filed 15 Dec. 2010 as U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/968,786; or U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2012/0166532, entitled “Contextually Relevant Affinity Prediction in a Social-Networking System” and filed 23 Dec. 2010 as U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/978,265.

An advertisement may be presented or otherwise delivered using plug-ins for web browsers or other applications, iframe elements, news feeds, tickers, notifications (which may include, for example, e-mail, Short Message Service (SMS) messages, or notifications), or other means. An advertisement may be presented or otherwise delivered to a user on a mobile or other computing device of the user. In connection with delivering advertisements, particular embodiments may utilize one or more systems, components, elements, functions, methods, operations, or steps disclosed in the following, which are all incorporated herein by reference as examples and not by way of limitation: U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2012/0159635, entitled “Comment Plug-In for Third-Party System” and filed 15 Dec. 2010 as U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/969,368; U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2012/0158753, entitled “Comment Ordering System” and filed 15 Dec. 2010 as U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/969,408; U.S. Pat. No. 7,669,123, entitled “Dynamically Providing a News Feed About a User of a Social Network” and filed 11 Aug. 2006 as U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/503,242; U.S. Pat. No. 8,402,094, entitled “Providing a Newsfeed Based on User Affinity for Entities and Monitored Actions in a Social Network Environment” and filed 11 Aug. 2006 as U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/503,093; U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2012/0072428, entitled “Action Clustering for News Feeds” and filed 16 Sep. 2010 as U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/884,010; U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2011/0004692, entitled “Gathering Information about Connections in a Social Networking Service” and filed 1 Jul. 2009 as U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/496,606; U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2008/0065701, entitled “Method and System for Tracking Changes to User Content in an Online Social Network” and filed 12 Sep. 2006 as U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/531,154; U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2008/0065604, entitled “Feeding Updates to Landing Pages of Users of an Online Social Network from External Sources” and filed 17 Jan. 2007 as U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/624,088; U.S. Pat. No. 8,244,848, entitled “Integrated Social-Network Environment” and filed 19 Apr. 2010 as U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/763,171; U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2011/0083101, entitled “Sharing of Location-Based Content Item in Social-Networking Service” and filed 6 Oct. 2009 as U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/574,614; U.S. Pat. No. 8,150,844, entitled “Location Ranking Using Social-Graph Information” and filed 18 Aug. 2010 as U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/858,718; U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/051,286, entitled “Sending Notifications to Users Based on Users' Notification Tolerance Levels” and filed 18 Mar. 2011; U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/096,184, entitled “Managing Notifications Pushed to User Devices” and filed 28 Apr. 2011; U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/276,248, entitled “Platform-Specific Notification Delivery Channel” and filed 18 Oct. 2011; or U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2012/0197709, entitled “Mobile Advertisement with Social Component for Geo-Social Networking System” and filed 1 Feb. 2011 as U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/019,061. Although this disclosure describes or illustrates particular advertisements being delivered in particular ways and in connection with particular content, this disclosure contemplates any suitable advertisements delivered in any suitable ways and in connection with any suitable content.

In particular embodiments, one or more of the content objects of the online social network may be associated with a privacy setting. The privacy settings (or “access settings”) for an object may be stored in any suitable manner, such as, for example, in association with the object, in an index on an authorization server, in another suitable manner, or any combination thereof. A privacy setting of an object may specify how the object (or particular information associated with an object) can be accessed (e.g., viewed or shared) using the online social network. Where the privacy settings for an object allow a particular user to access that object, the object may be described as being “visible” with respect to that user. As an example and not by way of limitation, a user of the online social network may specify privacy settings for a user-profile page that identify a set of users that may access the work experience information on the user-profile page, thus excluding other users from accessing the information. In particular embodiments, the privacy settings may specify a “blocked list” of users that should not be allowed to access certain information associated with the object. In other words, the blocked list may specify one or more users or entities for which an object is not visible. As an example and not by way of limitation, a user may specify a set of users that may not access photos albums associated with the user, thus excluding those users from accessing the photo albums (while also possibly allowing certain users not within the set of users to access the photo albums). In particular embodiments, privacy settings may be associated with particular social-graph elements. Privacy settings of a social-graph element, such as a node or an edge, may specify how the social-graph element, information associated with the social-graph element, or content objects associated with the social-graph element can be accessed using the online social network. As an example and not by way of limitation, a particular concept node 204 corresponding to a particular photo may have a privacy setting specifying that the photo may only be accessed by users tagged in the photo and their friends. In particular embodiments, privacy settings may allow users to opt in or opt out of having their actions logged by the social-networking system 160 or shared with other systems (e.g., a third-party system 170). In particular embodiments, the privacy settings associated with an object may specify any suitable granularity of permitted access or denial of access. As an example and not by way of limitation, access or denial of access may be specified for particular users (e.g., only me, my roommates, and my boss), users within a particular degrees-of-separation (e.g., friends, or friends-of-friends), user groups (e.g., the gaming club, my family), user networks (e.g., employees of particular employers, students or alumni of particular university), all users (“public”), no users (“private”), users of third-party systems 170, particular applications (e.g., third-party applications, external websites), other suitable users or entities, or any combination thereof. Although this disclosure describes using particular privacy settings in a particular manner, this disclosure contemplates using any suitable privacy settings in any suitable manner.

In particular embodiments, one or more servers 162 may be authorization/privacy servers for enforcing privacy settings. In response to a request from a user (or other entity) for a particular object stored in a data store 164, the social-networking system 160 may send a request to the data store 164 for the object. The request may identify the user associated with the request and may only be sent to the user (or a client system 130 of the user) if the authorization server determines that the user is authorized to access the object based on the privacy settings associated with the object. If the requesting user is not authorized to access the object, the authorization server may prevent the requested object from being retrieved from the data store 164, or may prevent the requested object from be sent to the user. In the search query context, an object may only be generated as a search result if the querying user is authorized to access the object. In other words, the object must have a visibility that is visible to the querying user. If the object has a visibility that is not visible to the user, the object may be excluded from the search results. Although this disclosure describes enforcing privacy settings in a particular manner, this disclosure contemplates enforcing privacy settings in any suitable manner.

FIG. 10 illustrates an example computer system 1000. In particular embodiments, one or more computer systems 1000 perform one or more steps of one or more methods described or illustrated herein. In particular embodiments, one or more computer systems 1000 provide functionality described or illustrated herein. In particular embodiments, software running on one or more computer systems 1000 performs one or more steps of one or more methods described or illustrated herein or provides functionality described or illustrated herein. Particular embodiments include one or more portions of one or more computer systems 1000. Herein, reference to a computer system may encompass a computing device, and vice versa, where appropriate. Moreover, reference to a computer system may encompass one or more computer systems, where appropriate.

This disclosure contemplates any suitable number of computer systems 1000. This disclosure contemplates computer system 1000 taking any suitable physical form. As example and not by way of limitation, computer system 1000 may be an embedded computer system, a system-on-chip (SOC), a single-board computer system (SBC) (such as, for example, a computer-on-module (COM) or system-on-module (SOM)), a desktop computer system, a laptop or notebook computer system, an interactive kiosk, a mainframe, a mesh of computer systems, a mobile telephone, a personal digital assistant (PDA), a server, a tablet computer system, or a combination of two or more of these. Where appropriate, computer system 1000 may include one or more computer systems 1000; be unitary or distributed; span multiple locations; span multiple machines; span multiple data centers; or reside in a cloud, which may include one or more cloud components in one or more networks. Where appropriate, one or more computer systems 1000 may perform without substantial spatial or temporal limitation one or more steps of one or more methods described or illustrated herein. As an example and not by way of limitation, one or more computer systems 1000 may perform in real time or in batch mode one or more steps of one or more methods described or illustrated herein. One or more computer systems 1000 may perform at different times or at different locations one or more steps of one or more methods described or illustrated herein, where appropriate.

In particular embodiments, computer system 1000 includes a processor 1002, memory 1004, storage 1006, an input/output (I/O) interface 1008, a communication interface 1010, and a bus 1012. Although this disclosure describes and illustrates a particular computer system having a particular number of particular components in a particular arrangement, this disclosure contemplates any suitable computer system having any suitable number of any suitable components in any suitable arrangement.

In particular embodiments, processor 1002 includes hardware for executing instructions, such as those making up a computer program. As an example and not by way of limitation, to execute instructions, processor 1002 may retrieve (or fetch) the instructions from an internal register, an internal cache, memory 1004, or storage 1006; decode and execute them; and then write one or more results to an internal register, an internal cache, memory 1004, or storage 1006. In particular embodiments, processor 1002 may include one or more internal caches for data, instructions, or addresses. This disclosure contemplates processor 1002 including any suitable number of any suitable internal caches, where appropriate. As an example and not by way of limitation, processor 1002 may include one or more instruction caches, one or more data caches, and one or more translation lookaside buffers (TLBs). Instructions in the instruction caches may be copies of instructions in memory 1004 or storage 1006, and the instruction caches may speed up retrieval of those instructions by processor 1002. Data in the data caches may be copies of data in memory 1004 or storage 1006 for instructions executing at processor 1002 to operate on; the results of previous instructions executed at processor 1002 for access by subsequent instructions executing at processor 1002 or for writing to memory 1004 or storage 1006; or other suitable data. The data caches may speed up read or write operations by processor 1002. The TLBs may speed up virtual-address translation for processor 1002. In particular embodiments, processor 1002 may include one or more internal registers for data, instructions, or addresses. This disclosure contemplates processor 1002 including any suitable number of any suitable internal registers, where appropriate. Where appropriate, processor 1002 may include one or more arithmetic logic units (ALUs); be a multi-core processor; or include one or more processors 1002. Although this disclosure describes and illustrates a particular processor, this disclosure contemplates any suitable processor.

In particular embodiments, memory 1004 includes main memory for storing instructions for processor 1002 to execute or data for processor 1002 to operate on. As an example and not by way of limitation, computer system 1000 may load instructions from storage 1006 or another source (such as, for example, another computer system 1000) to memory 1004. Processor 1002 may then load the instructions from memory 1004 to an internal register or internal cache. To execute the instructions, processor 1002 may retrieve the instructions from the internal register or internal cache and decode them. During or after execution of the instructions, processor 1002 may write one or more results (which may be intermediate or final results) to the internal register or internal cache. Processor 1002 may then write one or more of those results to memory 1004. In particular embodiments, processor 1002 executes only instructions in one or more internal registers or internal caches or in memory 1004 (as opposed to storage 1006 or elsewhere) and operates only on data in one or more internal registers or internal caches or in memory 1004 (as opposed to storage 1006 or elsewhere). One or more memory buses (which may each include an address bus and a data bus) may couple processor 1002 to memory 1004. Bus 1012 may include one or more memory buses, as described below. In particular embodiments, one or more memory management units (MMUs) reside between processor 1002 and memory 1004 and facilitate accesses to memory 1004 requested by processor 1002. In particular embodiments, memory 1004 includes random access memory (RAM). This RAM may be volatile memory, where appropriate Where appropriate, this RAM may be dynamic RAM (DRAM) or static RAM (SRAM). Moreover, where appropriate, this RAM may be single-ported or multi-ported RAM. This disclosure contemplates any suitable RAM. Memory 1004 may include one or more memories 1004, where appropriate. Although this disclosure describes and illustrates particular memory, this disclosure contemplates any suitable memory.

In particular embodiments, storage 1006 includes mass storage for data or instructions. As an example and not by way of limitation, storage 1006 may include a hard disk drive (HDD), a floppy disk drive, flash memory, an optical disc, a magneto-optical disc, magnetic tape, or a Universal Serial Bus (USB) drive or a combination of two or more of these. Storage 1006 may include removable or non-removable (or fixed) media, where appropriate. Storage 1006 may be internal or external to computer system 1000, where appropriate. In particular embodiments, storage 1006 is non-volatile, solid-state memory. In particular embodiments, storage 1006 includes read-only memory (ROM). Where appropriate, this ROM may be mask-programmed ROM, programmable ROM (PROM), erasable PROM (EPROM), electrically erasable PROM (EEPROM), electrically alterable ROM (EAROM), or flash memory or a combination of two or more of these. This disclosure contemplates mass storage 1006 taking any suitable physical form. Storage 1006 may include one or more storage control units facilitating communication between processor 1002 and storage 1006, where appropriate. Where appropriate, storage 1006 may include one or more storages 1006. Although this disclosure describes and illustrates particular storage, this disclosure contemplates any suitable storage.

In particular embodiments, I/O interface 1008 includes hardware, software, or both, providing one or more interfaces for communication between computer system 1000 and one or more I/O devices. Computer system 1000 may include one or more of these I/O devices, where appropriate. One or more of these I/O devices may enable communication between a person and computer system 1000. As an example and not by way of limitation, an I/O device may include a keyboard, keypad, microphone, monitor, mouse, printer, scanner, speaker, still camera, stylus, tablet, touch screen, trackball, video camera, another suitable I/O device or a combination of two or more of these. An I/O device may include one or more sensors. This disclosure contemplates any suitable I/O devices and any suitable I/O interfaces 1008 for them. Where appropriate, I/O interface 1008 may include one or more device or software drivers enabling processor 1002 to drive one or more of these I/O devices. I/O interface 1008 may include one or more I/O interfaces 1008, where appropriate. Although this disclosure describes and illustrates a particular I/O interface, this disclosure contemplates any suitable I/O interface.

In particular embodiments, communication interface 1010 includes hardware, software, or both providing one or more interfaces for communication (such as, for example, packet-based communication) between computer system 1000 and one or more other computer systems 1000 or one or more networks. As an example and not by way of limitation, communication interface 1010 may include a network interface controller (NIC) or network adapter for communicating with an Ethernet or other wire-based network or a wireless NIC (WNIC) or wireless adapter for communicating with a wireless network, such as a WI-FI network. This disclosure contemplates any suitable network and any suitable communication interface 1010 for it. As an example and not by way of limitation, computer system 1000 may communicate with an ad hoc network, a personal area network (PAN), a local area network (LAN), a wide area network (WAN), a metropolitan area network (MAN), or one or more portions of the Internet or a combination of two or more of these. One or more portions of one or more of these networks may be wired or wireless. As an example, computer system 1000 may communicate with a wireless PAN (WPAN) (such as, for example, a BLUETOOTH WPAN), a WI-FI network, a WI-MAX network, a cellular telephone network (such as, for example, a Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) network), or other suitable wireless network or a combination of two or more of these. Computer system 1000 may include any suitable communication interface 810 for any of these networks, where appropriate. Communication interface 1010 may include one or more communication interfaces 1010, where appropriate. Although this disclosure describes and illustrates a particular communication interface, this disclosure contemplates any suitable communication interface.

In particular embodiments, bus 1012 includes hardware, software, or both coupling components of computer system 1000 to each other. As an example and not by way of limitation, bus 1012 may include an Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) or other graphics bus, an Enhanced Industry Standard Architecture (EISA) bus, a front-side bus (FSB), a HYPERTRANSPORT (HT) interconnect, an Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) bus, an INFINIBAND interconnect, a low-pin-count (LPC) bus, a memory bus, a Micro Channel Architecture (MCA) bus, a Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) bus, a PCI-Express (PCIe) bus, a serial advanced technology attachment (SATA) bus, a Video Electronics Standards Association local (VLB) bus, or another suitable bus or a combination of two or more of these. Bus 1012 may include one or more buses 1012, where appropriate. Although this disclosure describes and illustrates a particular bus, this disclosure contemplates any suitable bus or interconnect.

Herein, a computer-readable non-transitory storage medium or media may include one or more semiconductor-based or other integrated circuits (ICs) (such, as for example, field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs) or application-specific ICs (ASICs)), hard disk drives (HDDs), hybrid hard drives (HHDs), optical discs, optical disc drives (ODDs), magneto-optical discs, magneto-optical drives, floppy diskettes, floppy disk drives (FDDs), magnetic tapes, solid-state drives (SSDs), RAM-drives, SECURE DIGITAL cards or drives, any other suitable computer-readable non-transitory storage media, or any suitable combination of two or more of these, where appropriate. A computer-readable non-transitory storage medium may be volatile, non-volatile, or a combination of volatile and non-volatile, where appropriate.

Herein, “or” is inclusive and not exclusive, unless expressly indicated otherwise or indicated otherwise by context. Therefore, herein, “A or B” means “A, B, or both,” unless expressly indicated otherwise or indicated otherwise by context. Moreover, “and” is both joint and several, unless expressly indicated otherwise or indicated otherwise by context. Therefore, herein, “A and B” means “A and B, jointly or severally,” unless expressly indicated otherwise or indicated otherwise by context.

The scope of this disclosure encompasses all changes, substitutions, variations, alterations, and modifications to the example embodiments described or illustrated herein that a person having ordinary skill in the art would comprehend. The scope of this disclosure is not limited to the example embodiments described or illustrated herein. Moreover, although this disclosure describes and illustrates respective embodiments herein as including particular components, elements, feature, functions, operations, or steps, any of these embodiments may include any combination or permutation of any of the components, elements, features, functions, operations, or steps described or illustrated anywhere herein that a person having ordinary skill in the art would comprehend. Furthermore, reference in the appended claims to an apparatus or system or a component of an apparatus or system being adapted to, arranged to, capable of, configured to, enabled to, operable to, or operative to perform a particular function encompasses that apparatus, system, component, whether or not it or that particular function is activated, turned on, or unlocked, as long as that apparatus, system, or component is so adapted, arranged, capable, configured, enabled, operable, or operative. Additionally, although this disclosure describes or illustrates particular embodiments as providing particular advantages, particular embodiments may provide none, some, or all of these advantages. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A method comprising: by one or more processors, generating a query based on a seed product offer that describes a product being offered for sale, wherein the seed product offer is retrieved from a webpage that includes an incomplete list of attribute vales for the seed product offer by converting the webpage to a hierarchical tree data structure comprising content elements of the webpage and extracting the attribute values from the hierarchical tree data structure, wherein the incomplete list of attribute values is missing a universal product code attribute value, and wherein the query is generated based on the incomplete list of attribute list of attribute values, and wherein generating the query includes: determining one or more distinguishing terms in a title attribute value of the seed product offer that are likely to identify matching product across vendors; selecting other attribute values of the seed product offer to include in the query based on a scaled propensity of each corresponding attribute to identify matching products; and including the one or more distinguishing terms and the selected other attribute values in the query; by the one or more processor, executing the query, using a search engine, on a plurality of product offers to determine candidate offers based on a likelihood that each product offer the plurality of product offers is associated with the product; by the one or more processors, determining one or more common attribute values across each corresponding attribute of the candidate offers; by the one or more processors, determining a common attribute value score based on a number of times each common attribute value occurs between corresponding attributes of the candidate offers; by the one or more processors, for each attribute value of each candidate offer: scoring the attribute value based on whether it matches one or more of the common attribute values by multiplying the common attribute value score for a matching attribute value by a match score that assesses how closely the attribute value matches the matching attribute value; and determining a complete list of normalized attribute values for the product, including the universal product code attribute value, based on whether the score for the attribute value is greater than a predetermined threshold; by the one or more processors, storing the complete list of normalized attribute values for the product in a product catalog listing for the product; and by the one or more processors, crawling a new webpage to identify additional candidate offers for the product based on the complete list of normalized attribute values for the product retrieved from the product catalog listing for the product.
 2. The method of claim 1, further comprising: determining a number of discrete attribute values associated with each of the plurality of product offers; and selecting a product offer associated with a greatest number of discrete attribute values as the seed product offer.
 3. The method of claim 1, wherein executing the query on the plurality of product offers comprises iteratively executing the query until a number of the candidate offers returned from the query is less than a predetermined threshold, wherein the query is modified after each iteration to return fewer results.
 4. The method of claim 3, wherein modifying the query comprises including an additional attribute of the seed product offer in the query.
 5. The method of claim 1, wherein determining the one or more common attribute values comprises determining whether two or more attribute values are synonyms.
 6. The method of claim 1, wherein determining the one or more common attribute values comprises determining that one or more attribute values refer to a secondary product related to the product being offered for sale.
 7. The method of claim 1, further comprising: for each of the plurality of product offers, determining whether the product offer describes the product being offered for sale based on whether each attribute value of the product offer matches one or more of the normalized attribute values.
 8. The method of claim 7, further comprising associating each of the plurality of product offers that are determined to describe the product being offered for sale with the product catalog listing for the product.
 9. The method of claim 1, further comprising: receiving information indicative of a new product offer; and determining whether the new product offer describes the product being offered for sale based on whether each attribute value of the new product offer matches one or more of the normalized attribute values.
 10. The method of claim 1, wherein the normalized attribute values comprise: one or more nouns describing the product; a brand name associated with the product; and one or more description terms associated with the product.
 11. The method claim 1, wherein the normalized attribute values comprise: one or more manufacturer's part numbers; one or more universal product codes; and a model name for the product.
 12. One or more computer-readable non-transitory storage media embodying software that is operable when executed to: generate a query based on a seed product offer that describes a product being offered for sale, where the seed product offer is retrieved from a webpage that includes an incomplete list of attribute values for the seed product offer by converting the webpage to a hierarchical tree data structure comprising content elements of the webpage and extracting the attribute values from the hierarchical tree data structure, wherein the incomplete list of attribute values is missing a universal product code attribute value, and wherein the query is generated based on the incomplete list of attribute values, and wherein generating the query includes: determining one or more distinguishing terms in a title attribute value of the seed product offer that are likely to identify matching products across vendors; selecting other attribute values of the seed product offer to include in the query based on a scaled propensity of each corresponding attribute to identify matching products; and including the one or more distinguishing terms and the selected other attribute values in the query; execute the query, using a search engine, on a plurality of product offers to determine candidate offers based on a likelihood that each product offer of the plurality of product offers is associated with the product; determine one or more common attribute values across each corresponding attribute of the candidate offers; determine a common attribute value score based on a number of times each common attribute value occurs between corresponding attributes of the candidate offer; for each attribute value of each candidate offer: score the attribute value based on whether it matches one or more of the common attribute values by multiplying the common attribute value score for a matching attribute value by a match score that assesses how closely the attribute value matches the matching attribute value; and determine a complete list of normalized attribute values for the product, including the universal product code attribute value, based on whether the score for the attribute value is greater than a predetermined threshold; store the complete list of normalized attribute values for the product in a product catalog listing for the product; and crawl a new webpage to identify additional candidate offers for the product based on the complete list of normalized attribute values for the product retrieved from the product catalog listing for the product.
 13. The computer-readable media of claim 12, wherein the software is further operable when executed to: determine a number of discrete attribute values associated with each of the plurality of product offers; and select a product offer associated with a greatest number of discrete attribute values as the seed product offer.
 14. The computer-readable media of claim 12, wherein executing the query on the plurality of product offers comprises iteratively executing the query until a number of the candidate offers returned from the query is less than a predetermined threshold, wherein the query is modified after each iteration to return fewer results.
 15. The computer-readable media of claim 14, wherein modifying the query comprises including an additional attribute of the seed product offer in the query.
 16. The computer-readable media of claim 12, wherein determining the one or more common attribute values comprises determining whether two or more attribute values are synonyms.
 17. The computer-readable media of claim 12, wherein determining the one or more common attribute values comprises determining that one or more attribute values refer to a secondary product related to the product being offered for sale.
 18. The computer-readable media of claim 12, wherein the software is further operable when executed to: for each of the plurality of product offers, determine whether the product offer describes the product being offered for sale based on whether each attribute value of the product offer matches one or more of the normalized attribute values.
 19. The computer-readable media of claim 18, further comprising associating each of the plurality of product offers that are determined to describe the product being offered for sale with the product catalog listing for the product.
 20. A system comprising: one or more processors; and a non-transitory memory coupled to the one or more processors comprising instructions executable by the one or more processors, the one or more processors operable when executing the instructions to: generate a query based on a seed product offer that describes a product being offered for sale, wherein the seed product offer is retrieved from a webpage that includes an incomplete list of attribute values for the seed product offer by converting the webpage to a hierarchical tree data structure comprising content elements of the webpage and extracting the attribute values from the hierarchical tree data structure, wherein the incomplete list of attribute values is missing a universal product code attribute value, and wherein the query is generated based on the incomplete list of attribute values, and wherein generating the query includes: determining one or more distinguishing terms in a title attribute value of the seed product offer that are likely to identify matching products across vendors; selecting other attribute values of the seed product offer to include in the query based on a scaled propensity of each corresponding attribute to identify matching products; and including the one or more distinguishing terms and the selected other attribute values in the query; execute the query, using a search engine, on a plurality of product offers to determine candidate offers based on a likelihood that each product offer of the plurality of product offers is associated with the product; determine one or more common attribute values across each corresponding attribute of the candidate offers; determine a common attribute value score based on a number of times each common attribute value occurs between corresponding attributes of the candidate offers; for each attribute value of each candidate offer: score the attribute value based on whether it matches one or more of the common attribute values by multiplying the common attribute value score for a matching attribute value by a match score that assesses how closely the attribute value matches the matching attribute value; and determine a complete list of normalized attribute values for the product, including the universal product code attribute value, based on whether the score for the attribute value is greater than a predetermined threshold; store the complete list of normalized attribute values for the product in a product catalog listing for the product; and crawl a new web page to identify additional candidate offers for the product based on the complete list of normalized attribute values far the product retrieved from the product catalog listing for the product. 